Name: __________________________  Date: _____________

1.	Define nature and nurture, and give an example of each. Also, describe the nature–nurture debate.	

2.	Describe how modern researchers view the nature-nurture debate and explain epigenetics.	

3.	Explain differential susceptibility, using the example of maternal depression and children's emotional maturity described in your textbook.	

4.	Define a critical period and a sensitive period. Explain the difference between the two periods and give an example of each.	

5.	Explain Bronfenbrenner's ecological-systems theory and describe his five systems.	

6.	Define cohort, explain its effects, and give an example of one.	

7.	Explain the term SES, including four components of SES.	

8.	Describe culture and explain why researchers interested in human development study different cultures.	

9.	Brenda believes that the terms culture, ethnicity, and race mean the same thing and are interchangeable. Explain why Brenda is incorrect.	

10.	Describe similarities between Freud's theory of psychosexual development and Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. Next, describe ways in which these theories differ.	

11.	Describe classical and operant conditioning. Next, identify the researcher who proposed the concept of classical conditioning and the researcher who introduced the idea of operant conditioning.	

12.	Explain social learning theory. From where did this theory originate, and what does it emphasize? Next, describe the concept of modeling.	

13.	List Piaget's four stages of cognitive development in order, and explain what Piaget believed facilitates intellectual advancement.	

14.	Nathalia is a child-care teacher who works primarily with toddlers. Most of the children that Nathalia works with are not yet toilet-trained. Explain the advice a psychoanalyst, behaviorist, and cognitive theorist would give Nathalia regarding her approach to toilet training.	

15.	List and describe the four theories that have contributed to our understanding of human development.	

16.	Imagine that you are interested in the relationship between age and reading ability for children of ages 8 to 12 years. Briefly define the cross-sectional design and summarize how you could test this relationship using that design.	

17.	Differentiate quantitative research from qualitative research. What are the benefits of using qualitative research in developmental psychology?	

18.	What are ethics, and why are ethical standards so important to scientific research?	

19.	The science of human development seeks to understand _____ people—all kinds of people, everywhere, of every age—change over time.	

20.	To prevent unexamined opinions and personal biases from influencing research findings, it is important to employ the _____ method.	

21.	A hypothesis is a specific prediction that can be _____ by various research methods.	

22.	Empirical evidence refers to “_____.”	

23.	In scientific research, collecting additional evidence by studying different participants than used in the original study is known as “_____.”	

24.	_____ refers to the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception.	

25.	A heart study conducted in _____, which began in 1948, has resulted in reduced rates of cigarette smoking, increased rates of exercise, and worldwide prevention against premature deaths.	

26.	James told his friend that he is tall because he inherited “tall” genes from his dad. James was claiming that _____, but not _____, was responsible for his height.	

27.	The combination of all environmental influences that affect an individual after conception is called “_____.”	

28.	_____ is the study of how environmental factors affect genes and genetic expression.	

29.	Although they are sisters, Terri and Jerri respond very differently to stressful events. Terri becomes emotionally and physically upset and has a difficult time focusing on what is positive in her life. Jerri, on the other hand, deals with stressful events directly and tends to remain optimistic. These differences illustrate the concept of “_____.”	

30.	The _____ takes into account all phases of life, from conception through death.	

31.	A _____ period of development is a time in which a particular type of development must occur if it is to occur at all.	

32.	A _____ period of development is a time in which a particular development occurs more easily—but not exclusively—at that time.	

33.	Thalidomide only caused birth defects if a pregnant woman ingested the drug during the _____ period of prenatal development.	

34.	Language learning illustrates the concept of a “_____ period of development.”	

35.	Although Janet's friends do well in school, she is a low-achieving student. Janet and her friends decide to meet once a week to study; soon, Janet's grades start to improve. Within the ecological-systems perspective, the influence of Janet's friends on her school performance illustrates the “_____.”	

36.	According to the ecological-systems approach, _____, such as cultural values, economic policies, and political processes, are part of the larger social setting.	

37.	Today's generation of children and young adults is heavily influenced by social media. That is, their historical context is very different from that of their grandparents. This illustrates Bronfenbrenner's concept of the “_____.”	

38.	A(n) _____ is a group of people born at about the same time who experience the same historical events and cultural shifts.	

39.	A person's income and level of education is part of his or her _____.	

40.	The system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior and assumptions is known as “_____.”	

41.	Two people from different cultures may value the need for achievement or success differently because of the _____ of each culture.	

42.	The human tendency to assume that people unlike us are inferior is called the “_____ error.”	

43.	People of a specific _____ group share certain attributes, such as religion and language.	

44.	Ethnicity is the product of _____, not biology.	

45.	_____ refers to a group of people who are regarded by themselves or by others as distinct from other groups on the basis of physical appearance, typically skin color.	

46.	Racial _____, but not experiences with discrimination, predicts more positive attitudes about other racial groups.	

47.	The _____ approach refers to the idea that human development is ongoing and ever-changing.	

48.	In David's story, although he was exposed to rubella during prenatal development, the higher socioeconomic status of his family made it possible for him to receive the medical and educational care that he needed to thrive. David also had two older brothers who watched out for him. The story of David illustrates the _____ characteristic of development.	

49.	The genes and expressions of each person prime him or her to respond in a particular way, and responses are plastic. This illustrates the concept of “_____.”	

50.	A _____ is a comprehensive and organized explanation of many phenomena.	

51.	A _____ theory is a systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a framework for understanding how and why people change over time.	

52.	Yusef learned that emotions affect performance. From this, he developed the idea that students who are sad when they take a test will perform poorly, whereas those who are happy will perform better. In this example, Yusef made a specific prediction that can be tested. This is known as a(n) “_____.”	

53.	The foundation of psychoanalytic theory is inner drives and motives, and _____ needs.	

54.	According to Freud, the _____ stage is the first stage of psychosexual development.	

55.	According to Freud's theory, adolescence occurs during the _____ stage of psychosexual development.	

56.	_____ is the psychoanalytic theorist who described eight developmental stages, each characterized by a particular challenge or developmental crisis.	

57.	Erikson's first _____ stages are closely related to Freud's stages.	

58.	Erikson's stages emphasized _____, not sexual urges.	

59.	Behaviorism is also called “_____ theory.”	

60.	_____ was the behavioral theorist who first described the process of conditioning.	

61.	The learning process in which a meaningful stimulus is connected with a neutral stimulus is called “_____.”	

62.	After visiting the doctor's office several times and receiving a shot each time, Abigail now tenses and cries when her mother pulls into the doctor's parking lot. Abigail's response is an example of _____ conditioning.	

63.	_____ was the most influential North American proponent of behaviorism.	

64.	In _____ conditioning, a particular action is followed by something desired or by something unwanted.	

65.	Two-year-old D'Angelo picks up his trains and puts them in the toy box. His father smiles and claps, exclaiming, “Good boy! You cleaned up your toys!” The next time D'Angelo plays with his trains, he eagerly cleans up, and his father responds the same way. In this example, praise is operating as a _____ for D'Angelo.	

66.	_____ theory states that every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people.	

67.	According to Bandura, _____ occurs when people copy what they see others do.	

68.	Steve watches his father mow the lawn. After a few minutes, Steve takes a toy lawnmower and begins following his father, row by row. Steve is _____ his father's behavior.	

69.	Piaget's stages of cognitive development include the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and _____ operational stages.	

70.	According to Piaget, humans seek cognitive _____, or a state of mental balance.	

71.	According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, _____ is when new experiences are reinterpreted to fit into old ideas.	

72.	According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, _____ is when old ideas are restructured to include new experiences.	

73.	Mrs. Sven is working with her toddler daughter, Arianna, on potty training. Each time Arianna uses the toilet, Mrs. Sven lets her pick a small prize out of a treasure chest. Mrs. Sven's strategy is consistent with the _____ perspective.	

74.	The basic idea of _____ theory in development is that in order to understand the emotions, impulses, and habits of humans over the life span, it is important to understand how those same emotions, impulses, and habits developed within Homo sapiens</i> over the past 100,000 years.	

75.	Keta believes that breast-feeding is a personal choice. That is, the woman should be able to choose whether she breast-feeds her infant. Keta's belief is consistent with the _____ perspective.	

76.	_____ theories bring an understanding of intellectual processes.	

77.	Dr. Hong believes that human impulses need to be reorganized before they can be guided. Dr. Hong's beliefs are consistent with _____ theories.	

78.	_____ observation requires researchers to record behaviors systematically and objectively.	

79.	Researchers who want to establish a causal relationship between two variables must use a research design called a(n) “_____.”	

80.	In an experiment, the researcher manipulates the _____ variable.	

81.	A _____ is a quick way to collect data from a large number of people.	

82.	In _____ research, groups of people of one age are compared with people of another age.	

83.	Dr. Branson is interested in whether adults value different romantic qualities in their partners as they age. She recruits 250 young adults and administers a survey on desired qualities in potential mates. Dr. Branson plans to readminister the survey every three years until participants reach the age of 70. Dr. Branson is implementing the _____ research design.	

84.	Cross-sequential, or cohort-sequential, research combines the cross-sectional design with the _____ design.	

85.	As children age, they tend to sleep fewer hours. This relationship is an example of a(n) _____ correlation.	

86.	To determine how children throughout the world compare in certain academic subjects, such as math and science, researchers rely on achievement test scores. This is an example of _____ research.	

87.	Professor Rajiv is interested in how parents from different ethnic groups view corporal punishment. Professor Rajiv and her team interview hundreds of parents throughout the country, asking open-ended questions to gain further insight into parental beliefs. This is an example of _____ research.	

88.	Each academic discipline and professional society involved in the study of human development has a _____, or a set of moral principles.	

89.	The science of human development seeks to understand:	
A)	the meaning of life.	
B)	the accuracy of new theories.	
C)	the works of Freud, Piaget, and Erikson.	
D)	how and why people change over time.	

90.	Dr. Jones wonders whether a specific brain chemical can be suppressed if a patient is given a large dose of vitamin E. Dr. Jones has just demonstrated the _____ step in the scientific method.	
A)	first	
B)	second	
C)	third	
D)	fourth	

91.	Dr. Schmidt predicts that a certain drug will reduce hallucinations in patients with schizophrenia. Her prediction is called:	
A)	a conclusion.	
B)	empirical evidence.	
C)	a hypothesis.	
D)	an observation.	

92.	Professor Thomas designed and conducted an experiment to determine whether a particular drug would help patients with bipolar disorder. By designing and conducting this experiment, he was able to:	
A)	establish a positive correlation.	
B)	demonstrate proof.	
C)	test the hypothesis.	
D)	confirm the results.	

93.	Dr. Inez is curious to know more about how children's peer relationships develop over time. To gain an understanding of this subject that is not based on opinion or personal bias, Dr. Inez should:	
A)	use the scientific method to collect data and establish facts.	
B)	have the children undergo psychoanalysis.	
C)	interview parents and teachers.	
D)	read Dr. Spock's book Baby and Child Care.	

94.	The first step in the scientific method involves:	
A)	posing a question.	
B)	conducting research.	
C)	analyzing evidence.	
D)	developing a hypothesis.	

95.	The second step in the scientific method involves:	
A)	posing a question.	
B)	conducting research.	
C)	developing a hypothesis.	
D)	sharing the results.	

96.	The third step in the scientific method involves:	
A)	posing a question.	
B)	conducting research.	
C)	sharing the results.	
D)	developing a hypothesis.	

97.	The fourth step in the scientific method involves:	
A)	posing a question.	
B)	conducting research.	
C)	developing a hypothesis.	
D)	supporting or refuting a hypothesis.	

98.	Empirical evidence is based on:	
A)	theories and speculation.	
B)	observation, experience, or experiment.	
C)	inferences based on personal biases.	
D)	opinions generated by focus groups.	

99.	After posing a question, a researcher using the scientific method:	
A)	draws conclusions.	
B)	runs an experiment.	
C)	selects a group of participants.	
D)	develops a hypothesis.	

100.	The final step in the scientific method involves:	
A)	testing a hypothesis.	
B)	posing a question.	
C)	conducting research.	
D)	reporting the results.	

101.	Dr. Greene is interested in designing a study on children's language acquisition. What is the first step that Dr. Greene should take, according to the scientific method?	
A)	Recruit children and their parents as participants in the study.	
B)	Develop a hypothesis regarding language acquisition.	
C)	Pose a research question about language acquisition.	
D)	Draw conclusions on the way children acquire language.	

102.	A hypothesis is a(n):	
A)	experiment.	
B)	prediction that can be tested.	
C)	conclusion drawn from research.	
D)	replication of a scientific study.	

103.	Replication involves:	
A)	the repetition of a study using different participants.	
B)	the repetition of a study using the same participants.	
C)	designing a new study based on information from a previous study.	
D)	designing a new study using new ideas and information.	

104.	Dr. Kox conducts a study in which he finds that smoking is related to an increased risk of high blood pressure. He publishes his results. Then Dr. Meco conducts the same study using different participants in another city. Dr. Meco's work is an example of:	
A)	scientific controversy.	
B)	replication.	
C)	ethics.	
D)	data analysis.	

105.	Due to findings from the heart study conducted in Framingham, Massachusetts:	
A)	childhood obesity rates have soared since the early 1980s.	
B)	cigarette smoking is down, exercise is up, and doctors routinely monitor blood pressure, weight, and cholesterol.	
C)	cigarette smoking and obesity rates are up, but cancer risk has decreased dramatically.	
D)	more parents are monitoring their children's use of harmful substances, such as alcohol and drugs.	

106.	According to a study cited in your text, researchers predicted that overweight children would have higher rates of heart attacks, strokes, diabetes, and death in adulthood, even if they slim down before adulthood. The data from this study:	
A)	disproved the hypothesis.	
B)	were inconclusive.	
C)	supported the hypothesis.	
D)	could not be replicated.	

107.	Parents who spend a great deal of time and money trying to find the best school for their children believe in the importance of _____ as it relates to development.	
A)	nurture	
B)	replication	
C)	nature	
D)	classical conditioning	

108.	_____ refers to all the environmental influences that affect development after conception.	
A)	Epigenetics	
B)	Nurture	
C)	Nature	
D)	Differential susceptibility	

109.	In the science of human development, nature refers to:	
A)	the influence of the genes that people inherit.	
B)	environmental influences.	
C)	patterns of development.	
D)	developmental differences.	

110.	In the science of human development, nurture refers to _____ traits.	
A)	hereditary	
B)	genetic	
C)	environmental	
D)	unique	

111.	Dr. Kim believes that heredity is primarily responsible for personality traits. Dr. West believes that environmental influences are primarily responsible for personality traits. They are on different sides of the _____ debate.	
A)	nature&ndash;nurture	
B)	intelligent design&ndash;evolution	
C)	genes&ndash;development	
D)	traits&ndash;conditioning	

112.	Most developmental psychologists believe that development is the result of:	
A)	nature and nurture acting separately.	
B)	genetic traits.	
C)	nature and nurture acting together.	
D)	environmental influences.	

113.	Which of the following illustrates the influence of nature in development?	
A)	having a mother who smoked during pregnancy	
B)	having the gene for epilepsy	
C)	eating a healthy diet	
D)	living in a loud neighborhood	

114.	_____ studies the many ways in which the environment alters gene expression.	
A)	Differential susceptibility	
B)	Ethology	
C)	Epigenetics	
D)	The nature&ndash;nurture debate	

115.	Stan and Marcus, close friends, grew up in the same neighborhood. Both were exposed to chronic poverty, gang violence, and family dysfunction. By the time they were in high school, Stan was flunking most of his classes, had a child, and had been arrested numerous times for drug-related crimes and theft. Marcus, on the other hand, was a good student, played football, and had aspirations to attend college. These diverse developmental trajectories, despite similar environmental influences, illustrate the concept of:	
A)	“epigenetics.”	
B)	a “critical period.”	
C)	a “sensitive period.”	
D)	“differential susceptibility.”	

116.	In one study that looked at the effects of maternal depression during pregnancy and child outcomes, researchers found that children who had a particular type of the serotonin transporter gene were likely to be emotionally immature if their mothers were depressed. However, children with this gene were more mature than average if their mothers were not depressed. These findings illustrate the concept of:	
A)	“epigenetics.”	
B)	a “critical period.”	
C)	a “sensitive period.”	
D)	“differential susceptibility.”	

117.	Differential sensitivity means that certain people have genes that:	
A)	make them more vulnerable to particular experiences.	
B)	interact and coordinate to influence developmental outcomes.	
C)	determine their social interactions and intellectual outcomes.	
D)	have an unknown impact on their long-term development.	

118.	The life-span perspective takes into account development from:	
A)	birth to death.	
B)	childhood to middle age.	
C)	birth to adolescence.	
D)	conception to death.	

119.	Late adulthood begins at age:	
A)	45.	
B)	55.	
C)	65.	
D)	75.	

120.	A developmental perspective requires consideration of:	
A)	time.	
B)	one's birthday.	
C)	observer bias.	
D)	scientific conclusions.	

121.	With respect to the concept of multi-directional development, rapid and dramatic change, such as when a larva becomes a mosquito, is an example of:	
A)	continuity.	
B)	discontinuity.	
C)	genetics.	
D)	nurture.	

122.	The concept of multi-directional development suggests that gradual change, as when a tortoise grows larger over its 150-year lifespan, is an example of:	
A)	continuity.	
B)	discontinuity.	
C)	genetics.	
D)	nurture.	

123.	Which example BEST illustrates a critical period?	
A)	a child learning to walk	
B)	a child learning a second language before age 4	
C)	a human fetus developing fingers and toes between 28 and 54 days in utero	
D)	a child learning to ride a bike between 5 and 6 years of age	

124.	Which example BEST illustrates a sensitive period?	
A)	a child who is born blind	
B)	an egg being fertilized	
C)	a fetus developing fingers and toes	
D)	a child learning to speak a second language	

125.	Between 1957 and 1961, many pregnant women took thalidomide to alleviate morning sickness; this drug disrupted a(n) _____ period of prenatal development.	
A)	sensitive	
B)	critical	
C)	early	
D)	late	

126.	A woman in Honduras worked in a field treated with pesticides during her pregnancy. Her son was subsequently born with no arms or legs. Her pesticide exposure likely occurred during a(n) _____ period of prenatal development.	
A)	critical	
B)	early	
C)	late	
D)	sensitive	

127.	Adam did not learn to read until he was an adolescent. When he did learn to read, it was much harder for him than it was for his peers. If Adam had learned to read during the early and middle childhood years, he would have acquired literacy skills much more efficiently. Adam's difficulty learning to read as an adolescent demonstrates the concept of a(n) “_____ period.”	
A)	critical	
B)	early	
C)	late	
D)	sensitive	

128.	The effects of climate, noise, population density, family size, and multiethnic communities illustrate that development is:	
A)	linear.	
B)	multi-directional.	
C)	multi-contextual.	
D)	multi-cultural.	

129.	The ecological-systems approach was proposed by:	
A)	Maslow.	
B)	Freud.	
C)	Bronfenbrenner.	
D)	Skinner.	

130.	In Bronfenbrenner's ecological-systems approach, the _____ refers to the interactions among systems.	
A)	macrosystem	
B)	exosystem	
C)	microsystem	
D)	mesosystem	

131.	Which term did Bronfenbrenner use to describe the impact of the specific time in history on a person's development?	
A)	macrosystem	
B)	microsystem	
C)	chronosystem	
D)	exosystem	

132.	Debbie was born during the Great Depression. Within the context of the ecological-systems approach, Debbie's experience of growing up during this time period falls within the:	
A)	chronosystem.	
B)	exosystem.	
C)	microsystem.	
D)	macrosystem.	

133.	Russell lives with his mother, father, and two brothers. This makes up his:	
A)	chronosystem.	
B)	exosystem.	
C)	microsystem.	
D)	macrosystem.	

134.	Dr. Merko is studying the impact of exosystems on human development. Which of the following would Dr. Merko be MOST interested in examining?	
A)	cultural values and economic processes	
B)	family and peer groups	
C)	medical centers and religious institutions	
D)	the development of the skeletal structure in children	

135.	In Bronfenbrenner's ecological-systems model, a hospital in the community is an example of the:	
A)	ecosystem.	
B)	microsystem.	
C)	chronosystem.	
D)	exosystem.	

136.	In Bronfenbrenner's ecological-systems model, family and peers are part of one's: 	
A)	microsystem.	
B)	exosystem.	
C)	macrosystem.	
D)	social system.	

137.	A person's macrosystem includes:	
A)	political processes.	
B)	the peer group.	
C)	school and church.	
D)	the historical setting.	

138.	According to Bronfenbrenner's ecological-systems approach, the historical context that affects other systems is called the:	
A)	ecosystem.	
B)	chronosystem.	
C)	mesosystem.	
D)	macrosystem.	

139.	Margaret grew up in the Great Depression, while her granddaughter is part of the Millennial generation. Margaret and her granddaughter belong to different:	
A)	socioeconomic groups.	
B)	microsystems.	
C)	cohorts.	
D)	cultural groups.	

140.	High school classmates are part of the same:	
A)	social construction.	
B)	network.	
C)	socioeconomic status.	
D)	cohort.	

141.	Socioeconomic status refers to an individual's:	
A)	culture.	
B)	ethnicity.	
C)	social class.	
D)	race.	

142.	The socioeconomic status of an individual includes, among other things, the person's:	
A)	ethnicity.	
B)	education level.	
C)	political beliefs.	
D)	religion.	

143.	The socioeconomic status of an individual includes, among other things, the person's:	
A)	ethnicity.	
B)	political beliefs.	
C)	neighborhood.	
D)	religion.	

144.	Zachary is a part-time construction worker. Maria is an attorney. These occupations reflect Zachary's and Maria's:	
A)	SES.	
B)	political values	
C)	cohorts.	
D)	family values.	

145.	Dorian has a college degree, lives in a nice neighborhood, and earns more than $50,000 a year. This information defines his:	
A)	economic potential.	
B)	socioeconomic status.	
C)	cohort.	
D)	microsystem.	

146.	A system of shared beliefs, conventions, norms, behaviors, expectations, and symbolic representations that persist over time and prescribe social rules of conduct is the definition of:	
A)	a cohort.	
B)	culture.	
C)	nature.	
D)	nurture.	

147.	The general term for a concept that is created by society is:	
A)	culture.	
B)	a cohort.	
C)	a social construction.	
D)	SES.	

148.	Li, age 11, is a recent Chinese immigrant. Li's new teacher has noticed that he rarely talks, does not make eye contact, and seems very shy. When the teacher speaks to Li's parents, they are surprised, as these characteristics are valued in Li's culture. The perception of Li's behavior reflects the concept of a(n):	
A)	microsystem.	
B)	exosystem.	
C)	social construction.	
D)	social phobia.	

149.	One historical example of the “difference-equals-deficit” error is:	
A)	men perceiving women as intellectually inferior.	
B)	European immigrants crossing the ocean to settle in America.	
C)	how people's IQ scores have been steadily rising for more than 100 years.	
D)	women taking factory jobs during World War II.	

150.	An example of the “difference-equals-deficit” error is:	
A)	assuming that children who are hearing impaired cannot communicate as well as children who can hear.	
B)	failing to compare typical and atypical behavior.	
C)	ignoring inconsistencies in a child's language development.	
D)	identifying flaws within the scientific method.	

151.	People whose ancestors were born in the same region and who usually share the same language and religion are called a(n):	
A)	racial group.	
B)	ethnic group.	
C)	SES group.	
D)	exosystem.	

152.	According to the text, race is:	
A)	part of the microsystem.	
B)	a social construction.	
C)	defined by heritage.	
D)	multi-directional.	

153.	Some social scientists believe that _____ terms exaggerate minor differences between people.	
A)	color	
B)	diversity	
C)	genetic analysis	
D)	culture	

154.	The fact that race is a social construction:	
A)	reflects inconsistencies in ethnic categories.	
B)	does not make the term meaningless.	
C)	means that it should be replaced with the term “culture”.	
D)	shows how powerful genetic influences are on development.	

155.	Plasticity refers to the:	
A)	many academic fields that contribute data to the science of development.	
B)	universals and specifics of human development in many cultural settings.	
C)	vast array of contexts in which development occurs.	
D)	potential for human traits to be molded during development but also to remain durable.	

156.	The term plasticity reminds us that:	
A)	human development is linear.	
B)	critical and sensitive periods predict developmental outcomes.	
C)	developmental change is possible.	
D)	human traits are mostly inborn.	

157.	The idea that human development is an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the body, mind, and every aspect of the environment reflects the:	
A)	dynamic-systems approach.	
B)	theory of evolution.	
C)	concept of universality.	
D)	domino effect.	

158.	Which of these is the BEST example of plasticity?	
A)	a child who experiences a traumatic brain injury and relearns how to walk and talk	
B)	a teenager who spends a summer in Chile as part of his church youth group	
C)	a woman who leaves her job to stay home with her newborn	
D)	a man who is in a serious car wreck and remains in a coma five years later	

159.	In the case study of David, he was exposed to _____ during his mother's pregnancy.	
A)	HIV	
B)	cancer-causing pesticides	
C)	rubella	
D)	pneumonia	

160.	In the case study of David, his IQ changed from about 40 to about 130, and his physical disabilities improved with age. These changes reflect which characteristic of development?	
A)	sensitive period	
B)	discontinuity	
C)	critical period	
D)	plasticity	

161.	Which theorist was a leader in describing the interaction between culture and education?	
A)	Lev Vygotsky	
B)	Urie Bronfenbrenner	
C)	Jean Piaget	
D)	Erik Erikson	

162.	Vygotsky believed that _____ was a universal process used by mentors to teach cultural knowledge, skills, and habits.	
A)	language	
B)	guided participation	
C)	culture	
D)	context	

163.	Guided participation was theorized by Vygotsky as a means of mentors teaching all of the following EXCEPT _____ to their mentees.	
A)	cultural knowledge	
B)	language	
C)	skills	
D)	habits	

164.	Vygotsky used the term _____ to describe the method used by parents, teachers, and entire societies to teach novices the skills and habits expected within their culture.	
A)	zone of proximal development	
B)	guided participation	
C)	apprenticeship in thinking	
D)	selective adaptation	

165.	Aviyah is helping her mom make a cake. Her mom helps her pick out the right ingredients, measure them, and mix them together. According to Vygotsky, Aviyah is engaging in:	
A)	modeling.	
B)	guided participation.	
C)	operant conditioning.	
D)	selective adaptation.	

166.	Epigenetics is:	
A)	the study of defective human genes.	
B)	the study of how the environment affects which genes are expressed.	
C)	a theory that emphasizes nature over nurture.	
D)	a theory that explains how motivation can alter biological traits.	

167.	Genes alone do not determine development; environmental forces also shape development. This information has led to the understanding that many human characteristics are:	
A)	plastic.	
B)	epigenetic.	
C)	static.	
D)	diverse.	

168.	A comprehensive and organized explanation of many phenomena is called a:	
A)	hypothesis.	
B)	theory.	
C)	conclusion.	
D)	development.	

169.	A systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a framework for understanding how and why people change over time is called a:	
A)	hypothesis.	
B)	developmental theory.	
C)	conclusion.	
D)	stage.	

170.	In the first half of the twentieth century, which two opposing theories dominated the discipline of psychology?	
A)	humanism and cognitive theory	
B)	behaviorism and sociocultural theory	
C)	psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism	
D)	cognitive theory and sociocultural theory	

171.	The foundation of psychoanalytic theory is:	
A)	observable behaviors.	
B)	inner drives and motives, and unconscious needs.	
C)	an individual's ideas and beliefs.	
D)	self-awareness and willingness to change.	

172.	Psychoanalytic theory originated with:	
A)	Piaget.	
B)	Freud.	
C)	Watson.	
D)	Erikson.	

173.	_____ emphasizes unconscious drives and early experiences with respect to development, whereas _____ emphasizes learning by association, reinforcement, or observation with respect to development.	
A)	Psychoanalytic theory; behaviorism	
B)	Psychoanalytic theory; cognitive theory	
C)	Behaviorism; psychoanalytic theory	
D)	Cognitive theory; psychoanalytic theory	

174.	_____ emphasizes unconscious drives and early experiences with respect to development, whereas _____ emphasizes learning by understanding how a person thinks.	
A)	Psychoanalytic theory; behaviorism	
B)	Psychoanalytic theory; cognitive theory	
C)	Behaviorism; psychoanalytic theory	
D)	Cognitive theory; psychoanalytic theory	

175.	Which is the correct order of the stages of Freud's psychosexual theory, beginning with infancy and ending with adolescence?	
A)	oral, anal, genital, phallic, latency	
B)	anal, oral, phallic, genital, latency	
C)	oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital	
D)	latency, phallic, oral, anal, genital	

176.	Each stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of development is characterized by a conflict associated with different parts of the body. According to Freud, how people experience and resolve each conflict influences personality:	
A)	throughout life, because early years provide the foundation of adult behavior.	
B)	throughout life, but only if some of the conflicts are successfully resolved.	
C)	only in childhood, with new conflicts emerging later that shape adult identity.	
D)	at a particular stage of development, also called a sensitive period.	

177.	According to Freud's psychosexual theory, the _____ stage centers around breast-feeding and weaning.	
A)	oral	
B)	anal	
C)	phallic	
D)	genital	

178.	Freud argued that the goal of a healthy life is to:	
A)	connect spiritually with another person.	
B)	follow moral codes set by society.	
C)	avoid conflict and promote social harmony.	
D)	love and to work.	

179.	Although many of the theorists who follow Freud's psychoanalytic theory have modified and expanded his ideas, they agree on the importance of:	
A)	early childhood experiences and psychosexual conflicts.	
B)	psychosexual conflicts and the unconscious.	
C)	early childhood experiences and the unconscious.	
D)	psychosexual conflicts and stages of psychosexual development.	

180.	Unlike Freud, Erikson:	
A)	only described development in childhood.	
B)	believed that adult problems reflect childhood conflicts.	
C)	emphasized family and culture in his stages.	
D)	leaned toward the behaviorist perspective.	

181.	Which psychoanalytic theorist identified unique stages of development from birth through late adulthood?	
A)	Freud	
B)	Piaget	
C)	Skinner	
D)	Erikson	

182.	Within Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, each of the developmental stages is characterized by a particular challenge, or a:	
A)	conflict negotiation.	
B)	developmental conflict.	
C)	developmental crisis.	
D)	resolution.	

183.	Which of Erikson's stages can be compared to Freud's oral stage of development?	
A)	initiative versus guilt	
B)	intimacy versus isolation	
C)	trust versus mistrust	
D)	autonomy versus shame and doubt	

184.	Learning theorists believe that psychologists should focus on:	
A)	observable behaviors.	
B)	inner drives and motives.	
C)	a person's ideas and beliefs.	
D)	a person's sexual conflict.	

185.	Behaviorism has also been referred to as “_____ theory.”	
A)	conditioning	
B)	learning	
C)	modeling	
D)	operant	

186.	The process by which a response becomes linked to a particular stimulus is called:	
A)	psychoanalysis.	
B)	cognition.	
C)	observational learning.	
D)	conditioning.	

187.	Pavlov's experiments with dogs that salivated when they heard a specific noise without the presence of food provide an example of:	
A)	classical conditioning.	
B)	observational learning.	
C)	operant conditioning.	
D)	reinforcement.	

188.	When a person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus, gradually responding to the neutral stimulus in the same way as to the meaningful one, he or she is exhibiting:	
A)	classical conditioning.	
B)	observational learning.	
C)	operant conditioning.	
D)	modeling.	

189.	A balloon popped and made Brandon cry. It happened again when he was at a friend's birthday party. Now when Brandon sees a balloon, he starts to cry. According to the behaviorist perspective, Brandon cries in response to the balloon because of:	
A)	operant conditioning.	
B)	observational learning.	
C)	classical conditioning.	
D)	modeling.	

190.	The type of conditioning that Skinner identified is referred to as “_____ conditioning.”	
A)	classical	
B)	observational	
C)	operant	
D)	cognitive	

191.	Operant conditioning is also referred to as “_____ conditioning.”	
A)	classical	
B)	instrumental	
C)	observational	
D)	reinforcement	

192.	Danielle, age 14, dislikes school. Her parents were recently informed that Danielle has missed twelve days of school this quarter and has left school early on at least four occasions. Danielle's father has decided to drop his daughter off every morning and pick her up every afternoon to make sure she is attending school. Danielle is now attending school, but she has gotten into serious trouble on multiple occasions, leading to a five-day out-of-school suspension. Since Danielle dislikes school and prefers to skip rather than attend, the out-of-school suspension represents a:	
A)	reinforcement.	
B)	punishment.	
C)	conditioner.	
D)	norm.	

193.	The boss praises his hourly employees for their good work. The boss hopes that the praise encourages the employees to continue to work hard. In this example, the reinforcement is:	
A)	the boss's praise.	
B)	worker productivity.	
C)	the boss.	
D)	an hourly wage.	

194.	Any consequence that follows a behavior and makes a person likely to repeat that behavior is called a(n):	
A)	punishment.	
B)	condition.	
C)	reinforcement.	
D)	observation.	

195.	Theorists who promote classical conditioning believe that learned behavior is the result of _____, whereas theorists who promote operant conditioning believe that learned behavior is the result of:	
A)	the association between one stimulus and another; past reinforcement.	
B)	past reinforcement; the association between one stimulus and another.	
C)	observing another person's actions; past reinforcement.	
D)	the association between one stimulus and another; observing another person's actions.	

196.	Social learning theory indicates that learning occurs from:	
A)	the association between one stimulus and another.	
B)	past reinforcement.	
C)	observing and imitating others.	
D)	responding to a particular stimulus.	

197.	A person observes the actions of others and copies them. Social learning theorists would call this an example of:	
A)	classical conditioning.	
B)	operant conditioning.	
C)	modeling.	
D)	cognition.	

198.	Observational learning is also called:	
A)	classical conditioning.	
B)	operant conditioning.	
C)	modeling.	
D)	cognition.	

199.	Jeremy watches his friend kick a soccer ball into the goal. Later that day, Jeremy finds a soccer ball and proceeds to kick it into the goal. Jeremy most likely engaged in the same behavior as his friend due to:	
A)	classical conditioning.	
B)	modeling.	
C)	operant conditioning.	
D)	reinforcement.	

200.	The foundation of cognitive theory is:	
A)	observable behaviors.	
B)	inner drives and motives.	
C)	a person's thoughts and expectations.	
D)	cultural influence.	

201.	_____ was a cognitive theorist.	
A)	Freud	
B)	Watson	
C)	Piaget	
D)	Vygotsky	

202.	With regard to cognitive development, Piaget argued that _____ is more revealing than:	
A)	what children know; how they think.	
B)	how children think; what they know.	
C)	the cultural context; what children know.	
D)	what children know; their cultural context.	

203.	Piaget's four stages of cognitive development, in order, are:	
A)	formal operational, concrete operational, preoperational, and sensorimotor.	
B)	preoperational, sensorimotor, formal operational, and concrete operational.	
C)	sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.	
D)	sensorimotor, preoperational, formal operational, and concrete operational.	

204.	According to Piaget, intellectual advancement occurs because of cognitive:	
A)	learning.	
B)	resolution.	
C)	equilibrium.	
D)	modeling.	

205.	A state of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing thought processes to understand current experiences and ideas is called:	
A)	social learning.	
B)	conflict resolution.	
C)	cognitive equilibrium.	
D)	information processing.	

206.	Jenny has never seen a pear before today. As her mom hands it to her, she says that it is a fruit. Jenny knows that apples and bananas are fruits and that she likes eating them, so she has a reference for this new experience. Jenny is experiencing:	
A)	social learning.	
B)	operant conditioning.	
C)	guided participation.	
D)	cognitive equilibrium.	

207.	According to Piaget, when new experiences are interpreted to fit into old ideas, it is called:	
A)	learning.	
B)	assimilation.	
C)	equilibrium.	
D)	accommodation.	

208.	Sanjay has a small dog at home, so he knows about dogs. He is walking down the street and sees an animal walking toward him. The animal is very large; has four legs, fur, and a tail; and is barking. Sanjay knows that these are characteristics of a dog, given his knowledge of dogs. He quickly concludes that this animal is a dog. This example illustrates Piaget's concept of:	
A)	operations.	
B)	assimilation.	
C)	equilibrium.	
D)	accommodation.	

209.	According to Piaget, when old ideas are restructured to include new experiences, it is called:	
A)	learning.	
B)	assimilation.	
C)	equilibrium.	
D)	accommodation.	

210.	Selena has a dog at home, so she knows about dogs. She is walking down the street and sees an animal walking toward her. The animal has four legs, fur, and a tail. Selena knows that these are characteristics of dogs. But the animal coming toward her is meowing, not barking. Selena's mom tells her that the animal is a cat. Now when Selena sees an animal with four legs, a tail, and fur, she will conclude it is a dog if it barks and a cat if it meows, illustrating Piaget's concept of:	
A)	operations.	
B)	assimilation.	
C)	equilibrium.	
D)	accommodation.	

211.	With respect to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the MOST difficult cognitive adaptation of the following options is:	
A)	assimilation.	
B)	accommodation.	
C)	sensorimotor behavior.	
D)	equilibrium.	

212.	Approaches to toilet training have changed over time. At one point, it was suggested to parents to postpone toilet training until the child was at least a year old to avoid serious personality problems later on. This view is MOST consistent with:	
A)	psychoanalytic theory.	
B)	cognitive theory.	
C)	behaviorism.	
D)	information-processing theory.	

213.	Approaches to toilet training have changed over time. At one point, it was suggested that parents toilet-train whenever they wished, using reinforcement as part of the training. This view is MOST consistent with:	
A)	psychoanalytic theory.	
B)	cognitive theory.	
C)	behaviorism.	
D)	information-processing theory.	

214.	In order to understand the emotions, impulses, and habits of humans over the life span, it is important to understand how those same emotions, impulses, and habits developed within Homo sapiens over the past 100,000 years. This concept is consistent with _____ theory.	
A)	psychoanalytic	
B)	sociocultural	
C)	information-processing	
D)	evolutionary	

215.	Which of the following questions would be addressed by an evolutionary theorist?	
A)	At what age do adolescents initiate sexual activity?	
B)	How do social media affect self-esteem in young people?	
C)	Why do pregnant women have morning sickness?	
D)	What risk factors are associated with the development of Alzheimer's disease in late adulthood?	

216.	According to evolutionary theory, why are so many people afraid of snakes?	
A)	because of daily life-threatening experiences	
B)	because of unconscious memories of childhood experiences with snakes	
C)	because they have learned by watching others react with fear to snakes	
D)	because a fear of snakes helped our ancient ancestors survive	

217.	According to evolutionary theory, every species has two long-standing, biologically-based drives:	
A)	survival and reproduction.	
B)	aggression and sex.	
C)	hunger satiation and shelter.	
D)	fear and aggression.	

218.	For centuries, men have needed a woman to be sexually faithful to ensure that her children are also his offspring. Which theory is MOST consistent with this explanation for faithfulness among romantic partners?	
A)	eclectic theory	
B)	evolutionary theory	
C)	behaviorism	
D)	sociocultural theory	

219.	_____ theories have made us aware of the impact on development of early-childhood experiences, remembered or not.	
A)	Psychoanalytic	
B)	Cognitive	
C)	Sociocultural	
D)	Eclectic	

220.	_____ has/have shown the effect that immediate response, associations, and examples have on learning, moment by moment and over time.	
A)	Psychoanalytic theories	
B)	Cognitive theories	
C)	Sociocultural theories	
D)	Behaviorism	

221.	_____ theories have brought an understanding of intellectual processes and how our thoughts and beliefs affect every aspect of our development.	
A)	Psychoanalytic	
B)	Cognitive	
C)	Sociocultural	
D)	Eclectic	

222.	Scientific observation allows for the:	
A)	study of individuals' behaviors in a systematic and objective manner.	
B)	determination of cause-and-effect relationships.	
C)	observation of participants without their knowledge.	
D)	systematic manipulation of variables.	

223.	Which statement about scientific observation is true?	
A)	It requires a large number of participants.	
B)	It requires specialized equipment, such as video recorders.	
C)	It involves recording behavior systematically and objectively.	
D)	It must take place in a lab setting.	

224.	Experiments allow researchers to:	
A)	study the natural environment.	
B)	study the complexity of an individual.	
C)	use the scientific method in a cost-effective way.	
D)	determine a cause-and-effect relationship.	

225.	When a researcher wants to determine the cause of a particular behavior, the appropriate research method to use is a(n):	
A)	case study.	
B)	meta-analysis.	
C)	experiment.	
D)	survey.	

226.	A dependent variable is:	
A)	the measured variable that may change depending on manipulation of an independent variable.	
B)	any unmeasured variable that is uncontrolled within the context of the experiment.	
C)	the variable that is intentionally manipulated by the researcher.	
D)	an external variable that cannot be controlled by the researcher.	

227.	An independent variable is:	
A)	the measured variable that may change depending upon manipulation of a dependent variable.	
B)	any unmeasured variable that is uncontrolled within the context of the experiment.	
C)	the variable that is intentionally manipulated by the researcher.	
D)	an external variable that cannot be controlled by the researcher.	

228.	An example of a dependent variable in an experiment might be:	
A)	gender.	
B)	blood type.	
C)	eye color.	
D)	level of depression.	

229.	In an experiment, the group of participants who receive the imposed treatment or special condition is referred to as the _____ group.	
A)	independent	
B)	dependent	
C)	experimental	
D)	comparison	

230.	The purpose of an experiment is to find out whether:	
A)	an independent variable affects the dependent variable.	
B)	a positive correlation can be established.	
C)	the dependent variable can be manipulated.	
D)	the hypothesis is flawed or influenced by researcher bias.	

231.	“_____ research” is a quick way to study the development of a large group of people.	
A)	Experimental	
B)	Survey	
C)	Cohort-sequential	
D)	Longitudinal	

232.	Which of the following is a limitation of survey research?	
A)	Participants often drop out of the research.	
B)	It is expensive and time-consuming.	
C)	It requires experimental control.	
D)	Participants may be dishonest in their answers.	

233.	The quickest and least expensive way to study development over time is with _____ research.	
A)	survey	
B)	cross-sectional	
C)	longitudinal	
D)	experimental	

234.	Dr. Clarke wanted to learn whether ice cream preferences change at different stages of development. For her study, she conducted a one-time assessment in which she asked a group of 5-year-olds, a group of 15-year-olds, and a group of 30-year-olds to identify their ice cream preferences. Dr. Clarke conducted a _____ study.	
A)	case	
B)	cross-sectional	
C)	longitudinal	
D)	cross-sequential	

235.	_____ research involves studying the same individuals over time, as their development is repeatedly assessed.	
A)	Survey	
B)	Cross-sectional	
C)	Longitudinal	
D)	Observational	

236.	Which is NOT a limitation associated with longitudinal research?	
A)	the aging of the participants	
B)	losing participants over time	
C)	changing historical context	
D)	participants becoming aware of the goals of the study and changing their behaviors or answers	

237.	Which type of research design combines the cross-sectional design with the longitudinal research design?	
A)	cross-sequential	
B)	longitudinal	
C)	meta-sequential	
D)	quasi-experimental	

238.	A correlation indicates that there is _____ between two variables.	
A)	a causal link	
B)	validity	
C)	reliability	
D)	a relationship	

239.	A correlation is considered to be negative if:	
A)	both variables decrease.	
B)	both variables increase.	
C)	one variable increases while the other variable decreases.	
D)	change in one variable is unrelated to change in the other variable.	

240.	A correlation is considered to be zero if:	
A)	one variable increases while the other decreases.	
B)	both variables decrease.	
C)	both variables increase.	
D)	there is no relationship between the variables.	

241.	The more Jim eats, the less hungry he feels. The correlation that exists between Jim's food intake and his hunger is:	
A)	positive.	
B)	negative.	
C)	zero.	
D)	causal.	

242.	The more parents read to their children, the higher their children score on achievement tests. This relationship between parents reading to their children and child achievement represents a(n):	
A)	causal relationship.	
B)	inverse correlation.	
C)	positive correlation.	
D)	negative correlation.	

243.	If a researcher finds that there is a correlation between secondhand smoke and children's asthma, he knows for SURE that:	
A)	secondhand smoke causes children's asthma.	
B)	secondhand smoke does not cause children's asthma.	
C)	prenatal exposure to smoking leads to asthma.	
D)	asthma and secondhand smoke have some connection.	

244.	_____ research can be categorized, ranked, or numbered.	
A)	Quantitative	
B)	Qualitative	
C)	Correlational	
D)	Observational	

245.	_____ research involves asking open-ended questions and reporting answers in narrative, not numerical, form.	
A)	Quantitative	
B)	Qualitative	
C)	Correlational	
D)	Observational	

246.	_____ research reflects cultural and contextual diversity but is also more vulnerable to bias and harder to replicate.	
A)	Experimental	
B)	Quantitative	
C)	Qualitative	
D)	Longitudinal	

247.	IRB stands for:	
A)	Institutional Review Board.	
B)	International Research Board.	
C)	Internal Review Board.	
D)	Intelligence Research Board.	

248.	The MOST important requirement for all scientists, particularly those studying human development, is to:	
A)	have an advanced degree.	
B)	only conduct experimental research.	
C)	uphold ethical standards.	
D)	avoid using vulnerable populations.	

249.	_____ are essential ethical safeguards.	
A)	Promotion, social awareness, and publication	
B)	Independence, privacy, and funding	
C)	Political correctness, scientific advancement, and medical treatment	
D)	Collaboration, replication, and transparency	

250.	To be ethical, researchers should choose topics of study that:	
A)	may be researched quickly.	
B)	may be researched inexpensively.	
C)	can help all people live better lives.	
D)	are politically correct.	

251.	The science of human development examines how, but not why, people change over time.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

252.	The primary goal of the scientific method is to generate data that support the researcher's hypotheses.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

253.	A research question becomes a hypothesis when it is stated as a prediction that can be examined.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

254.	Using careful analysis of evidence gathered in the research, investigators are able to conclude whether the hypothesis is supported.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

255.	If Dr. Schmidt conducts a study in the exact same way that Dr. Hancock did but uses different participants than Dr. Hancock, Dr. Schmidt is engaging in replication.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

256.	The influence of nurture begins at conception.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

257.	Since starting school, Stan had struggled with math. His teacher offered to help him with math after school. Now Stan does well on his math assignments. This example illustrates how nurture can influence development.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

258.	Nature is more important than nurture in how a trait or behavior is expressed.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

259.	Friends Jill and Susan both experienced poverty as children. In addition, they were raised by single parents and attended poor-performing schools. By late adolescence, Jill had dropped out of school and had two children. Susan, in contrast, was academically ranked number one in her graduating class and had a full academic scholarship to Harvard. This example illustrates the concept of “differential sensitivity.”	
A)	True	
B)	False	

260.	Samantha learned to play the piano as a child and played very well until she stopped practicing in her late teenage years. In her 40s, she decided to start playing the piano again. She quickly realized that she had lost most of her ability to play, so she took lessons to relearn how to play the piano. After several years of lessons, Samantha plays the piano very well. This example illustrates the multi-directional nature of development.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

261.	Most of our development occurs during critical periods.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

262.	Within the context of Bronfenbrenner's ecological-systems approach, a person's immediate surroundings, such as family or peer group, are part of the microsystem.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

263.	Individuals in the same cohort are exposed to the same values, events, technologies, and culture of the era.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

264.	The term cohort refers to individuals born in the same geographical region and within the same social class.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

265.	Socioeconomic status is also called “social class.”	
A)	True	
B)	False	

266.	Culture refers to a system of shared beliefs, conventions, norms, behaviors, and expectations.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

267.	The “difference-equals-deficit” error may lead people to believe that their nation or culture is better than others.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

268.	Race and ethnicity are different terms for the same thing.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

269.	Scientists believe that race is a genetic construct.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

270.	According to the dynamic-systems approach, human development is a static process.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

271.	A developmental theory is a systematic statement of general principles that provides a framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

272.	The foundation of psychoanalytic theory is inner drives and motives, and unconscious needs.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

273.	According to Freud, the first stage of psychosexual development during infancy is the anal stage.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

274.	Erikson's stages of psychosocial development apply specifically to the childhood years.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

275.	In classical conditioning, a meaningful stimulus becomes linked to a neutral stimulus.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

276.	In operant conditioning, an individual follows a modeled behavior.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

277.	Cognitive theory utilizes modeling.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

278.	Piaget's first stage of cognitive development is the preoperational stage.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

279.	Evolutionary theory is based on the idea that thoughts and expectations affect actions.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

280.	According to evolutionary theory, every species has two long-standing, biologically based drives: survival and reproduction.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

281.	The main advantage of scientific observation as a research method is that it allows the investigator to determine cause and effect.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

282.	In an experiment, the group receiving the special treatment is referred to as the “comparison group.”	
A)	True	
B)	False	

283.	The purpose of a survey is to allow a researcher to collect data quickly from a large population.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

284.	One limitation of using surveys is that participants may not tell the truth.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

285.	Dr. Thomas and his research team are interested in how aggression changes as we age. The team will recruit 1,000 3-year-old children and assess their levels of aggression every three years until the participants turn 21. This is an example of cross-sectional research.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

286.	In longitudinal research, the same participants are measured at multiple assessment points over a period of time.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

287.	The cross-sequential design combines cross-sectional and longitudinal research.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

288.	When two variables are unrelated, the correlation between them is zero.	
A)	True	
B)	False	

Answer Key

1.	Nature refers to the influence of genes on a person, and nurture refers to environmental influences on a person. Environmental influences include the health and diet of the embryo's mother and continue for an individual's entire life, including experiences in the family, school, community, and society. An example of nature would be inheriting a gene that predisposes one to addiction. An example of nurture would be having a predisposition to addiction but being raised in a warm, stimulating environment in which parents do not abuse drugs or alcohol, reducing the individual's risk for addiction as a result of not being exposed to abuse or parental addictions. The debate concerns how many of any person's characteristics, behaviors, or emotions are the result of genes and how many are the result of the person's experiences.

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0-1 pts.)	

Define nature and nurture	
Accurately defines both terms and gives an example of both	
Accurately defines one term and gives at least one accurate example	
Does not accurately define both terms or supply accurate examples	

Describe the debate	
Accurately describes both sides of the debate	
Accurately describes one side of the debate	
Does not accurately describe the debate	

2.	Modern researchers have learned that neither nature alone nor nurture alone can provide a complete way to understand development. Both nature and nurture matter, as both genes and environment affect nearly all of our characteristics. Epigenetics is the study of how environmental factors affect genes and genetic expression—enhancing, halting, shaping, or altering the expression of genes. This means that one's environment influences the expression of some genes.

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

Researchers' viewpoint	
States modern researchers' stance that both matter	
Is vague about modern researchers' stance	
Incorrectly states modern researchers' stance	

Epigenetics	
Defines the term and clearly explains what it means	
Defines the term without explaining its meaning	
Does not describe the term or give an explanation	

3.	Differential susceptibility refers to the idea that people vary in how sensitive they are to particular experiences. These differences are often genetic. In one study, depression in pregnant women was assessed, and then the emotional maturity of their children was measured. Children who had a particular version of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) were likely to be emotionally immature if their mothers were depressed but more mature than average if their mothers were not depressed. 

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

Define differential susceptibility	
Accurately defines the term	
Partially defines the term	
Does not accurately define the term	

Refer to the example of maternal depression and children's emotional maturity	
Provides the example presented in the textbook	
Partially explains the link between maternal depression and children's emotional maturity	
Does not provide the example or incorrectly explains the link between maternal depression and children's emotional maturity 	

4.	A critical period is a time when something must occur to ensure normal development, and a sensitive period is a time when a specific developmental task occurs most easily. An example of a critical period would be the fetus growing arms and legs and hands and feet—this can occur only at a specific time in utero. Language development is an example of a sensitive period. It occurs most easily at a young age but can still develop at a later age as well.

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

Define and differentiate the two periods	
Defines both periods and differentiates between them	
Defines just one period or is vague about differentiation	
Fails to define both periods or fails to differentiate 	

Give examples	
Gives a correct example for both periods	
Gives a correct example of either period	
Does not give any examples	

5.	Bronfenbrenner's ecological-systems theory is a perspective on human development that considers all the influences from the various contexts of development. This approach recognizes three nested levels as well as two systems that affect these levels. He believed that each person is affected by his or her social context. Over the course of his career, he identified five systems. The first is the microsystem (e.g., one's family and peer group), the second is the exosystem (school, clubs, and church), and the third is the macrosystem (larger social setting, such as cultural values and economic policies). The fourth system, called the chronosystem, is the role of historical context, and the fifth system, called the mesosystem, is the interaction that occurs between all the other systems.

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

Explain ecological systems theory	
Clearly states what the theory is	
Gives a vague explanation of the theory	
Is unable to describe the theory	

Identify the systems	
Identifies the five systems and gives an example of each	
Identifies three of the systems or gives examples of three of the systems	
Identifies fewer than three of the systems or gives fewer than three examples	

6.	A cohort is a group of people born within a few years of each other who move through time together. Cohorts travel through life affected by the interaction of their chronological age with the values, events, technologies, and culture of the historical period. Cohort examples will vary but should show an understanding of a cohort. Examples include the names that parents give their babies, views regarding the legalization of marijuana, and even the war on drugs. The baby-boom generation is an example of a cohort. Other common examples include the Greatest Generation (people who lived through the Depression and WWII) and the Millennials (Generation Y, born between the early 1980s and the early 2000s). Another example would be Generation X, born between the early 1960s and the early 1980s.

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

Explain cohort	
Correctly defines cohort and explains its importance on members	
Defines cohort without explaining its effect on members	
Does not define cohort correctly	

Give an example	
Gives an example of a cohort	
Gives a vague example of cohort	
Gives an incorrect example or does not give an example	

7.	SES, or socioeconomic status, is a person's position in society and is determined by education, occupation, neighborhood, and income. 

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

Explain the term 	
Correctly explains the term	
Partially explains the term	
Does not explain the term	

Provide the four components	
Includes the four components	
Includes two components of SES	
Does not include the four components or includes incorrect components 	

8.	Culture is the system of shared beliefs, conventions, norms, behaviors, expectations, and symbolic representations that persist over time and prescribe social rules of conduct. Culture is a powerful social construction, or a concept created by a society. Such social constructions affect how people think and act—what they value, praise, ignore, and punish. Different cultures may view the same behaviors or phenomena as either assets or deficits. Therefore, by studying different cultures, researchers can identify which patterns are universal among humans and which occur only in certain cultures. This information provides insights into the effects of different environments.

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

Describe culture 	
Clearly describes culture	
Gives a definition of culture without describing it	
Does not define culture	

Explain why researchers study different cultures	
Clearly explains why researchers study different cultures	
Is vague about why researchers study different cultures	
Does not explain why researchers study different cultures	

9.	Plasticity is the molding of human traits while simultaneously maintaining some durability of identity. The concept of plasticity reminds us that human development is an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the body and mind and between the individual and every aspect of his or her environment. Influences that affect plasticity include culture, upbringing, and genes. Students' examples should relate to some aspect of growth in their individual lives, such as how they—or someone they know—have overcome adversity. For example, they could discuss how a high-functioning person on the autism spectrum can eventually earn a college degree. (The autism remains [durability], but with school and other societal interventions, the person can still achieve traditional milestones.) 

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

Define and discuss plasticity	
Defines the concept of plasticity and discusses it	
Defines <i>or</i> discusses plasticity	
Does not define or discuss plasticity	

List factors that influence plasticity	
Lists three factors that influence plasticity	
Lists two factors that influence plasticity	
Lists one or no factors that influence plasticity	

Give a plasticity example	
Gives an example of plasticity	
Gives an example of plasticity but does not relate it to a personal experience	
Does not give an example of plasticity	

10.	Both Freud and Erikson proposed stage theories based on the belief that adult problems echoed childhood conflicts. However, Erikson's psychosocial theory had eight stages, while Freud's psychosexual theory had five. Erikson named two polarities at each stage, and his stages encompassed the entire life span, while Freud's ended after adolescence. Erikson's theory also emphasized the influence of family and culture, while Freud's theory emphasized unconscious sexual urges.

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

Describe similarities	
States that both men had stage theories based on the idea that adult problems echoed childhood conflicts	
States that both theories had stages	
Does not describe accurately how the theories were similar	

Describe differences	
States all four ways in which the theories differed	
States three of the four ways in which the theories differed	
States two or fewer ways in which the theories differed or does not accurately describe how the theories differed	

11.	Classical conditioning is the learning process in which a meaningful stimulus is connected with a neutral stimulus that had no special meaning before conditioning. The person gradually reacts to the neutral stimulus with the same behavior as the meaningful one. Pavlov introduced the concept of classical conditioning. In operant conditioning, a person performs some action, and then a response occurs. If the response is pleasurable, the person is likely to repeat the action. If the response is unpleasant, the person is unlikely to repeat the action. Skinner is associated with operant conditioning.

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

Describe classical and operant conditioning	
Correctly describes both types of conditioning	
Correctly describes one type of conditioning	
Does not describe either type of conditioning or confuses the two types	

Name the researchers associated with each	
Correctly names Pavlov and Skinner	
Correctly names Pavlov or Skinner	
Does not name either Pavlov or Skinner or confuses who belongs with each type of conditioning	

12.	Social learning theory is an extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior. Even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people. Modeling is the central process of social learning, by which a person observes the actions of others and then copies them. 

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

Explain social learning theory	
States that the theory is an offshoot of behaviorism and how everyone learns by observation and imitation	
States that everyone learns through observation and imitation	
Is vague about the definition of social learning theory	

Describe modeling	
Clearly describes how modeling is implicit in social learning	
Describes imitation but not modeling	
Fails to describe modeling	

13.	The four stages are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. According to Piaget, cognitive equilibrium facilitates intellectual advancement because humans seek mental balance. Disequilibrium can cause cognitive growth if people change their thinking through assimilation or accommodation.

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

List the stages of cognitive development	
Lists the four stages in order	
Lists three of the stages in order or confuses the order of two of the stages	
Lists two or fewer stages or has the stages out of order	

Explain causes of intellectual advancement	
Understands how people seek cognitive equilibrium and that disequilibrium can cause assimilation or accommodation	
Understands that people seek cognitive equilibrium	
Does not adequately explain Piaget's beliefs about intellectual advancement	

14.	Psychoanalytic theory identifies the first year of life as the oral stage, which occurs before the anal stage (years 1–3). Thus, psychoanalytic theorists believe that toilet training should be postponed until the child is cognitively, emotionally, and biologically ready—around age 2 for daytime training and age 3 for nighttime dryness. 
A behaviorist would argue that toilet training should occur whenever the parent (or adult) wishes to start, not at a particular age. Praise and reward should be used each time the child uses the toilet, as they will increase the likelihood that the child will successfully use the toilet in the future. 
A cognitive theorist would suggest that a parent (or adult) wait until the child can understand reasons to urinate and defecate in the toilet. 

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

Explain the advice that each therapist would offer 	
Accurately explains how each therapist would advise Nathalia on toilet training 	
Accurately explains how two therapists would advise Nathalia on toilet training	
Does not explain how any therapist would advise on toilet training or provides incorrect information	

15.	Psychoanalytic theory has made scientists aware of the importance of social and emotional experiences during early childhood. Behavioral theory (or behaviorism) has shown the effect that immediate responses and associations have on human learning. Cognitive theory helps scientists understand how intellectual processes and thinking affect people's actions. Evolutionary theory suggests that human impulses need to be recognized before they can be guided. 

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

List theories	
Lists the four  theories: psychoanalytic, behaviorism, cognitive, and evolutionary 	
Lists three of the theories	
Lists one or two of the theories	

Describe how theories have contributed to understanding	
Describes how each of the four theories has added to our knowledge of development	
Describes how two of the theories have added to our knowledge of development	
Describes how one of the theories has added to our knowledge of development	

16.	A correlation exists between two variables when one variable changes (increases or decreases) as the other variable changes. Examples will vary but should illustrate this concept, such as the relationship between increased ice cream sales and higher murder rates. It is impossible to determine cause and effect from correlations, because even though correlations indicate a connection between two variables, they cannot determine the reason for the connection, since no other variables are controlled. In the example above, both ice cream sales and murder rates increase at the same time. Therefore, a third variable—heat—may explain this relationship.

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

Define correlation	
Gives an accurate definition of correlation	
Gives an adequate definition of correlation	
Gives an inaccurate or no definition of correlation	

Give an example of a correlation	
Offers a good example of a correlation	
Offers a vague or weak example of a correlation	
Offers an incorrect or no example of a correlation	

Explain the relationship between causation and correlation	
States that causation cannot be determined from a correlation	
Implies that causation can be determined from a correlation	
States that causation can be determined from a correlation	

17.	Quantitative research provides data that can be expressed with numbers, such as
ranks or scales. Qualitative research, in contrast, relies on open-ended questions, and information is presented in narrative rather than numerical form. Many developmental researchers rely on quantitative research as it reflects cultural and contextual diversity. 

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

Differentiate quantitative and qualitative research 	
Explains the differences between the two types of research	
Provides partial definitions of the two types of research	
Does not differentiate the two types of research 	

Explain the benefits of using qualitative research in developmental psychology	
Includes the benefits of using qualitative research	
Only includes one benefit associated with qualitative research 	
Does not include the benefits of qualitative research	

18.	Ethics are a set of moral principles and specific practices that protect both participants and the integrity of research. Ethical standards provide study participants with the assurance of informed consent; the knowledge that their participation is voluntary and confidential; and the promise that they will not be harmed.

Ethics are also a vital part of the reporting process after the research has been conducted. Reports of findings should be accurate, and the study should be able to be replicated under the same conditions. Collaboration, replication, and transparency are essential ethical safeguards for all scientists.

Good (5 pts.)	
Fair (3 pts.)	
Weak (0–1 pts.)	

Define ethics	
Defines ethics	
Defines ethics only as they apply to participants or the reporting process 	
Does not define ethics	

Explain the importance of ethics	
Explains why ethics are important, including the three ethical safeguards—collaboration, replication, and transparency; states several ways in which ethics protect participants and how ethics protect findings and replication	
Identifies only how ethics are important for participants or their importance to the reporting process and replication	
Does not explain why ethics are important	

19.	how and why	
20.	scientific	
21.	tested (evaluated) (examined) (assessed)	
22.	data	
23.	replication	
24.	Nature	
25.	Framingham	
26.	nature; nurture	
27.	nurture	
28.	Epigenetics	
29.	differential susceptibility (differential sensitivity)	
30.	life-span perspective	
31.	critical	
32.	sensitive	
33.	critical	
34.	sensitive	
35.	microsystem	
36.	macrosystems	
37.	chronosystem	
38.	cohort	
39.	socioeconomic status (SES) (social class)	
40.	culture	
41.	social construction	
42.	difference-equals-deficit	
43.	ethnic	
44.	ancestral heritage	
45.	Race	
46.	pride	
47.	dynamic-systems	
48.	multi-contextual	
49.	differential susceptibility (differential sensitivity)	
50.	theory	
51.	developmental	
52.	hypothesis	
53.	unconscious	
54.	oral	
55.	genital	
56.	Erik Erikson (Erikson)	
57.	five (5)	
58.	family and culture	
59.	learning	
60.	Ivan Pavlov (Pavlov)	
61.	classical conditioning	
62.	classical	
63.	B. F. Skinner (Skinner)	
64.	operant (instrumental)	
65.	reinforcement	
66.	Social learning	
67.	modeling	
68.	modeling	
69.	formal	
70.	equilibrium	
71.	assimilation	
72.	accommodation	
73.	behaviorist (behavioral)	
74.	evolutionary	
75.	cognitive	
76.	Cognitive	
77.	evolutionary	
78.	Scientific	
79.	experiment	
80.	independent (experimental)	
81.	survey	
82.	cross-sectional	
83.	longitudinal	
84.	longitudinal	
85.	negative	
86.	quantitative	
87.	qualitative	
88.	code of ethics	
89.	D	
90.	A	
91.	C	
92.	C	
93.	A	
94.	A	
95.	C	
96.	B	
97.	D	
98.	B	
99.	D	
100.	D	
101.	C	
102.	B	
103.	A	
104.	B	
105.	B	
106.	A	
107.	A	
108.	B	
109.	A	
110.	C	
111.	A	
112.	C	
113.	B	
114.	C	
115.	D	
116.	D	
117.	A	
118.	D	
119.	C	
120.	A	
121.	B	
122.	A	
123.	C	
124.	D	
125.	B	
126.	A	
127.	D	
128.	C	
129.	C	
130.	D	
131.	C	
132.	A	
133.	C	
134.	C	
135.	D	
136.	A	
137.	A	
138.	B	
139.	C	
140.	D	
141.	C	
142.	B	
143.	C	
144.	A	
145.	B	
146.	B	
147.	C	
148.	C	
149.	A	
150.	A	
151.	B	
152.	B	
153.	A	
154.	B	
155.	D	
156.	C	
157.	A	
158.	A	
159.	C	
160.	D	
161.	A	
162.	B	
163.	B	
164.	B	
165.	B	
166.	B	
167.	B	
168.	B	
169.	B	
170.	C	
171.	B	
172.	B	
173.	A	
174.	B	
175.	C	
176.	A	
177.	A	
178.	D	
179.	C	
180.	C	
181.	D	
182.	C	
183.	C	
184.	A	
185.	B	
186.	D	
187.	A	
188.	A	
189.	C	
190.	C	
191.	B	
192.	A	
193.	A	
194.	C	
195.	A	
196.	C	
197.	C	
198.	C	
199.	B	
200.	C	
201.	C	
202.	B	
203.	C	
204.	C	
205.	C	
206.	D	
207.	B	
208.	B	
209.	D	
210.	D	
211.	B	
212.	A	
213.	C	
214.	D	
215.	C	
216.	D	
217.	A	
218.	B	
219.	A	
220.	D	
221.	B	
222.	A	
223.	C	
224.	D	
225.	C	
226.	A	
227.	C	
228.	D	
229.	C	
230.	A	
231.	B	
232.	D	
233.	B	
234.	B	
235.	C	
236.	A	
237.	A	
238.	D	
239.	C	
240.	D	
241.	B	
242.	C	
243.	D	
244.	A	
245.	B	
246.	C	
247.	A	
248.	C	
249.	D	
250.	C	
251.	B	
252.	B	
253.	A	
254.	A	
255.	A	
256.	A	
257.	A	
258.	B	
259.	A	
260.	A	
261.	B	
262.	A	
263.	A	
264.	B	
265.	A	
266.	A	
267.	A	
268.	B	
269.	B	
270.	B	
271.	A	
272.	A	
273.	B	
274.	B	
275.	A	
276.	B	
277.	B	
278.	B	
279.	B	
280.	A	
281.	B	
282.	B	
283.	A	
284.	A	
285.	B	
286.	A	
287.	A	
288.	A